| Domain | Representative Findings | |--------|--------------------------| | | Children who experienced frequent spanking scored on average 4–5 points lower on standardized reading and math tests (Afifi et al., 2021). | | Emotional & Mental Health | Elevated risk for anxiety, depression, and borderline personality traits (Smith & Duran, 2022). | | Physical Health | Higher incidence of somatic complaints (headaches, stomachaches) reported in adolescence (Klein et al., 2019). | | Inter‑generational Transmission | Adults who were spanked are more likely to use physical punishment with their own children (Ruth, 2020). |
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